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Index

Armenia

- Armenia
- The Historical Significance of Armenia's Geographical Situation
- The Geopolitical Situation of Armenia

The Urartu Civilisation

- The Urartu Civilisation
- The Arrival of the Indo-European Armenians
- The Armenian Language

Victory for Independence

- Victory for Independence
- Armenia and the Empire of the Medes
- Armenia and the Persian Empire
- Armenia within the Persian Empire
- Alexander the Great
- The First Independence, 322-215 B.C.
- The Kingdom of the Seleucids
- Armenia regains its Independence

Artashisian Dynasty on the Armenian Throne

- Artashisian Dynasty on the Armenian Throne
- Armenia Minor
- The first History Lessons
- Tigran the Great
- The Conquests of Tigran
- King of Kings
- The New Capital
- Tigran's Way of Thinking and His Court
- The Social Structure of Armenia
- The Military Power of Armenia
- The Roman Empire and its Expansion in the East
- The First War between Lucullus and Armenia, 69 B.C.
- The Battle of Tigranakert (October 6, 69 B.C.)
- The Second War of Lucullus Against Armenia (68 B.C.)
- The Campaign of Pompey (67-66 B.C.)
- Tigran and His Fate

Armenia caught between Rome and the Arsacids

- Armenia caught between Rome and the Arsacids
- Artavazd III (56-34)
- Crassus' Campaign Against Persia
- Caesar's Plan
- The Campaign of Marcus Antonius
- Artashes II
- Augustus and his Policy Towards Armenia
- The Last King in the Artashisian Dynasty (20 B.C. to 2 A.D.)
- The Period between the Dynasties of Artashisian and Arshakounian (2 to 53 A.D.)
- The Reign of Tirdat I (53-100)
- Armenia During the Reign of the Successors to Tirdat I (100-224)
- The General Situation in Armenia during the Roman Rule
- The Leadership of Armenia and its Organisation
- Military Aspects
- The Economical and Social Aspects
- The Ancient Religion in Armenia
- Armenia, its Position and Political Posture
- Rome and Armenia

The Acceptance of Christianity

- The Acceptance of Christianity
- The Sasanid Seizure of Power in Persia (224-228)
- Armenia and Rome Against the Sasanids (228-252)
- Tirdat III (252-330)
- Armenia's Acceptance of Christianity and Grigor Lousavoritch (288-301)
- Armenia During the Last Arsacid Kings (330-428)
- The Armenian Feudal Lords and their Role
- Cultural Work

Defending Christianity

- Defending Christianity
- Armenia Under Sasanid Rule and the Battle of Avarayr (430-634)
- The Separation of the Armenian Church and Its Consequences
- Islam and the Arab Empire
- The Armies of the Arabs March Towards Armenia (639-659)
- Armenia Under the Rule of the Arab (645-859)
- Armenia Between the Arab and Byzantine Empires
- Military Aspects
- Economical Aspects
- Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects
- Armenia's Role in the Creation of the Christian Architecture

Armenia Under the Bagratouni Dynasty

- Armenia Under the Bagratouni Dynasty
- The Emergence of the Bagratouni
- Armenia Gains Once More Its Independence
- The Royal Soldiers: Ashot I, Smbat I and Ashot II
- The Height of the Bagratouni Era, Abas I, Ashot III, Smbat II, Gagik I
- The City of Ani
- Smbat III and the Creation of the Lori Kingdom
- The Turanians
- War in Two Fronts
- The End of Ani and Its Consequences
- Military Aspects
- Economic and Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects
- The Meaning of the Bagratouni Armenia and Its Fate
- Armenia and Byzantine Empire
- Byzantine, Its Role and Significance
- The Armenian Soldiers of Byzantine
- The Armenian Commanders and Officials of Byzantine
- The Armenian Emperors of Byzantine
- The Armenian Civilization and Byzantine
- The Policy of Byzantine towards Armenia

Cilicia - the New Armenia

- Cilicia - the New Armenia
- Entrance of Price Rouben in Cilicia
- The Middle East at the End of the 11th century
- New Armenia, the Ally of the Crusader States (1095-1100)
- The successful battles of New Armenia against Byzantine and the Muslims (1100-1187)
- The Crusader States and the Counterattack of Islam
- Levon II the Magnificent (1187-1219)
- The End of the Crusader States
- The Hetoum Dynasty and the Alliance With the Mongols (1220-1300)
- The Last Regents of the Hetoum Dynasty (1300-1342)
- The Lusignan Dynasty and the End of New Armenia (1342-1375)
- The Organization of New Armenia
- Military Aspects
- Economic Aspects
- Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects
- The Historical Extent of New Armenia

Armenia Under Turanian Rule

- Armenia Under Turanian Rule
- The Invasion of the Seljuk Turks
- The Invasion of the Mongols
- The First Large Emigration of the Armenians
- The Ottoman Turks and the Establishment of the Ottoman Empire
- The Armenians and the Ottoman Turks
- The Conquest of Armenia by the Ottoman Turks
- Armenia Under the Rule of the Ottoman Turks
- Armenia and Persia
- The Armenian Principalities of Karabakhn
- Military Aspects
- Economical and Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects

The Renaissance or the Resurrection of Armenia

- The Renaissance or the Resurrection of Armenia
- The Development of Thoughts and Actions
- The Armenian Church and its role
- The Mkhitarists
- The Re-discovery of Armenia by the Western World
- Armenia and the Printing
- Cultural Works
- The Literary Movement
- The Emergence of the Publication of Armenian Scripts
- The National Sentiment of the Armenian People
- Khrimian Hayrik
- The Influence of Armenia in the Orient

The Eastern Question

- The Eastern Question
- The Turanian Deluge
- The Eastern Question until 1877
- The State of the Ottoman Empire
- Attempts at reform in the Ottoman Empire
- The Liberation of the Peoples in the Balkans

Russia in the Caucasus

- Russia in the Caucasus
- The End of Armenian Seclusion
- The Wars Between Russia and Persia
- The Russian-Turkish Wars During the 19th century
- Transcaucasia Under Russian Rule
- The Policy of Tsarist Russia in Transcaucasia
- Military Aspects

The Armenian Question

- The Armenian Question
- The Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin (1878)
- The Policy of the Major Powers from 1878 to 1894
- Armenian Question from 1878 to 1894
- The Ottoman Policy
- The Situation in Western Armenia
- The Mass Murders of 1894-1896
- The Occupation of Bank Ottoman
- The Position of the Major Powers During the Massacres of 1894-1896
- The Role of Profits

Battle on Two Fronts

- Battle on Two Fronts
- The Birth of the Armenian Revolutionary Movement
- Battle on Two Fronts
- The Cooperation of Armenia in the Liberation of the People in the Orient

Tsarist Russia Against the Armenians

- Tsarist Russia Against the Armenians
- Russian Policy Towards non-Russians
- The Confiscation of the Properties of the Armenian Church
- The Massacres of 1905
- Calming Measures and Vorontsov-Dashkov

The Revolution of the Young Turks and the Armenian People on the Eve of World War I

- The Revolution of the Young Turks and the Armenian People on the Eve of World War I
- The Revolution of the Young Turks
- The Policy of Turkification
- The Reform Plan of 1913-1914
- Armenia on the Eve of the First World War
- Economic Aspects

The First World War

- The First World War
- Pan Turkism and Pan Turanism
- Armenian Genocide of 1915-1918
- The Participation of the Armenians in the First World War

The Resurrection of Armenia

- The Resurrection of Armenia
- The Defence of Transcaucasia (1917-1918)
- The Resurrection of Armenia
- Armenia and the Allies
- The 1920 War between Turkey and Armenia
- A Draft Soviet-Turkish Treaty
- The Armenian-Turkish War

Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918

- Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918

Eastern Armenia

- Eastern Armenia
- Russian Conquest of the Caucasus
- The Armenian Oblast
- Provincial Reorganizations in the Caucasus
- Russian Annexation of Kars, Ardahan, and Batum
- Armenians, Georgians, and Moslems of Transcaucasia
- The Armenian Literary Movement and Subsequent Emergence of Political Societies
- The Armenian Church Crisis, 1903-1905
- The Armeno-Tatar Conflict and the Revised Platform of Dashnaktsoutiun
- The Years of Reaction, 1907-1912

Western Armenia

- Western Armenia
- The Armenians of the Ottoman Empire
- Internationalisation of the "Armenian Question"
- Massacres, Reform Plans, Massacres. 1894-1896
- The "Young Turks" and the Coup f 1908
- The Counterrevolution and the Ascendancy of the Ittihadist Triumvirate, 1909-1913
- Russia and Armenian Reforms, 1912-1914
- The Negotiations
- Statistical Controversies
- The Compromise Reform of February 8, 1914

"The Fateful Years" (1914-1917)

- "The Fateful Years" (1914-1917)
- The Turkish Decision for War
- The Erzurum Congress
- Eastern Armenian Preparations
- Nicholas II in the Caucasus
- Enver's Disastrous Winter Campaign of 1914
- Effects of the Campaign in Transcaucasia
- Deportation and Massacre of the Western Armenians
- Deliverance and Evacuation of Van
- Revelation of Actual Tsarist Attitudes
- The Secret Entente Agreement
- The New Viceroy, Grand Duke Nicholas Romanov, in the Caucasus
- Occupation and Administration of the Armenian Plateau, 1916
- Renewed Eastern Armenian Activities

"Hopes and Emotions" (March-October, 1917)

- "Hopes and Emotions" (March-October, 1917)
- "The March Revolution"
- Formation of Soviets in Transcaucasia
- The Position of Georgian, Armenian, and Moslem Parties
- The "April Theses" and the Armenian Bolsheviks
- The Ozakom
- The First Congress of Western Armenians
- The "Provisional Government's Arrangement about Western Armenia"
- The Caucasus Front and American Consul F. Willoughby Smith
- Russia in Crisis, July-November, 1917
- The First Regional Conference of Caucasian Bolshevik Organisations
- The Eastern Armenian National Congress
- Proposals for the Provincial Reorganisation of Transcaucasia

The Bolshevik Revolution and Armenia

- The Bolshevik Revolution and Armenia
- Revolution, the Sovnarkom, and Self-Determination
- Lenin's Declarations about Armenia
- The Decree "About Western Armenia"
- The Sovnarkom Seeks Peace
- The German Offensive and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Transcaucasia Adrift (November, 1917

- Transcaucasia Adrift (November, 1917
- The Transcaucasian Commissariat
- The Constituent Assembly
- The Erzinjan Truce
- The Second Regional Congress of the Caucasus Army
- The Question of Bolshevik-Dashnakist Collaboration
- Formation of National Corps in Transcaucasia
- Consul Smith versus the Department of State
- Transcaucasia's Inconclusive Response to Ottoman Proposals
- Turkish Violation of the Erzinjan Truce
- The Transcaucasian Seim
- The Seim's Conditions for Peace

Dilemmas (March-April, 1918)

- Dilemmas (March-April, 1918)
- Confusion in Trabizond and in Tiflis
- The Fall of Erzurum and All Western Armenia
- Smith's Appeals for Assistance
- The Trabizond Conference
- Transcaucasia's Quandary
- Transcaucasia Aflame
- The "March Days" in Baku
- Concessions and Ultimatums in Trabizond
- Menshevik Anxiety about Batum
- The Seim's Response to the Ottoman Challenge

War and Independence (April-May, 1918)

- War and Independence (April-May, 1918)
- War
- The Democratic Federative Republic of Transcaucasia
- The Surrender of Kars
- Turmoil in Tiflis
- The Sovnarkom's Ambivalence
- The Batum Peace Conference
- Turkish Invasion of the Yerevan Guberniia
- Conflicting German-Turkish Interests in Transcaucasia
- Attempted German Mediation and a New Ottoman Ultimatum
- Georgian Preparations to Abandon the Federation

The Republics of Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia

- The Republics of Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia
- Collapse of the Transcaucasian Federative Republic
- The Republics of Georgia and Azerbaijan
- The Armenian Quandary
- Decisive Battles near Yerevan
- Final Negotiations and the Treaties of Batum
- Assessment of the Losses
- Interpretations of Armenian Independence
- Germany's Conflict with Turkey
- The Deterioration of Armeno-Georgian Relations
- Organisation of Armenia's Cabinet and Its Transferral to Yerevan
- Armenia's Legislature - the Khorhourt
- Beacons of Hope

The Suppliants (June-October, 1918)

- The Suppliants (June-October, 1918)
- Armenian Diplomats in Germany
- The Battle for Baku
- The Brest-Litovsk Supplementary Treaty and Talaat's Mission
- The Fall of Baku
- The Sovnarkom-Ottoman Alternation and the Fall of the Ittihadist Government
- The Armenian Mission to Constantinople
- Misgivings Arising from the Mudros Armistice
- The British in Transcaucasia

In conclusion

- In conclusion

Soviet Armenia

- Soviet Armenia
- Sovietisation and Peace
- The Aftermath
- Soviet Armenia
- Making Armenia Armenian
- Stalin's Revolution
- World War II and the Cold War
- The Years of Reform:
- The Rise of the New Nationalism
- From Renewed Reform to National Revolution
- The Consequences of Soviet Armenia

The Second Independent Republic of Armenia

- The Second Independent Republic of Armenia
- The New Foreign Policy of Armenia
- The Setbacks for the Ter-Petrosian Administration
- Renewed Attention to the Armenian Genocide
- Kocharian's Administration
- The Cultural and Scientific Life of Armenia and Armenians During the 20th century

Epilogue

- Epilogue
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Deliverance and Evacuation of Van

As the caravans of deportees trudged toward the Syrian desert and Jevdet Bey attempted to crush the rising at Van, the Eastern Armenians wavered between optimism and pessimism. They were yet not fully aware of what had befallen the Western Armenians, but, believing the latter imperilled, clamoured for Russian occupation of the entire Plateau. When news of the fighting at Van reached Transcaucasia, the demand for immediate action burgeoned, and the IV Corps of the Russian Caucasian Army launched an offensive toward Van and Manizkert. 78 Participating in the operation were the second, third, and fifth volunteer battalions combined under the command of Vartan into the Legion of Ararat. Departing from Yerevan on April 28, 1915, the Legion joined General Nikolaev's regular divisions, which passed over the pre-war boundary on May 4. 79 Two weeks later the Armenian units, followed by the Russian troops, were greeted joyously by the insurgents at Van, while Jevdet Pasha retreated along the southern shore of the lake toward Vostan. 80 The Armenian volunteers were showered with praise by IV Corps Commander General Oganovsky, who, through the person of Catholicos, informed the Armenian people of the valour of their Legion. 81 Russian military authorities appointed Aram Manoukian, who had coordinated the Armenian defence of Van, governor of the occupied region. Armenian political consciousness was again stimulated, for the promised reward, an autonomous Armenia under Russian protection, was within sight. 82 Already native administration, militia, and police were established in the cradle around Lake Van, where the Armenian nation had been moulded more than two thousand years before. 83

At the end of June, the Armenian Legion, now attached to the special forces of General Trukhin, was entrusted with the task of expelling the Turks from the entire southern shore of the lake in preparation for the concentrated Russian drive into the Bitlis vilayet, where nearly a hundred thousand beleaguered Armenians awaited deliverance. 84 Impatient to reach the Plain of Moush and the mountains of Sasoun, the Legion, joined by Andranik's unit, attained south-western extremity of the lake by mid-July and garnered the laudations of General Trukhin. However, when Russian divisions advanced toward Bitlis, they met the vigorous counteroffensive of Abdul Kerim's strongly reinforced Special Army Group, whose blows were directed north of the lake against the main concentration of the IV Caucasus Corps near Manizkert. 85 To avoid encirclement, Trukhin's group was commanded to withdraw to Van, but upon arriving there the general found the entire region already evacuated by the remainder of the IV Corps. Thus, on July 31, 1915, the native inhabitants were ordered to abandon their homes and move toward the Russian border. 86 The panic was indescribable. After the month-long resistance to Jevdet Pasha, after the city's liberation, after the establishment of an Armenian governorship, all was blighted. Fleeing behind the retreating Russian forces, nearly two hundred thousand refugees, losing most of their possessions in repeated Kurdish ambushes, swarmed into Transcaucasia. 87 Providing for this multitude, coping with the impatience to return home, and assuaging their complaints against their Eastern Armenian neighbours were among the many serious problems inherited by the future republic.

If the evacuation of Van occasioned much discontent and grief, the failure of the march toward Bitlis resulted in tragedy. The welcome sound of Russian artillery heard by the Armenians of Moush and Sasoun had faded away as Turkish divisions, having repulsed the foreign enemy, concentrated upon their internal foes. It was only after the few survivors of the blood bath had straggled into Transcaucasia that the full impact and significance of the Western Armenian annihilation was delivered. 88 When the IV Corps and Armenian units reoccupied Van in September, 1915, captured Vostan in October, and advanced into Moush in February and Bitlis in March, 1916, there remained no one to liberate. Russian victory then occasioned little rejoicing among the volunteers or Armenian populace of Transcaucasia. 89
78) M. Philips Price, "War and Revolution in Asiatic Russia" (New York, [1918]), pp. 61-62; W. E. D. Allen and Paul Muratoff, "Caucasian Battlefields: A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828-1921" (Cambridge, 1953), p. 298.

79) Gr. Tchalkhouchian, "La livre rouge" (Paris, 1919), pp. 11-12; Edvard Choburian, "Metz paterazme yev hai zhoghovourde" [The Great War and the Armenian People] (Constantinople, 1920), p. 29; General G. Korganoff, "La participation des Arméniens à la guerre mondiale sur le front du Caucase, 1914-1918" (Paris, 1927), p. 23; Archives of the Republic of Armenia Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference [now integrated into the archives of Dashnaktsoutyoun, Boston, Massachusetts], File 1/1.

80) M. Larcher, "La guerre torque dans la guerre mondiale" (Paris, 1926), p. 394; Felix Guse, "Die Kaukasusfront im Weltkrieg bis zum Frieden von Brest" (Leipzig, [1940]), p. 62; E. K. Sargsian, "Ekspansionistskaia politika Osmanskoi imperii v Zakavkaz'e nakanune I v gody pervoi mirovoi voiny" (Yerevan, 1962), p. 274; On. Mkhitarian, "Vani herosamarte" [The Heroic Battle of Van] (Sofia, 1930), pp. 211-213. The Turks had deserted Van on May 16 and in the two-day interlude before the arrival of the first Armenian volunteer unit, the Armenians of Van burned the fortress and public buildings of the city. It is important to note the change in Soviet historiography relating to armed resistance of the Western Armenians and to the role of Soviet authors. Consult, for example, G. Stepanian, "Hai zhoghovrti herosakan inknapashtpanoutyoune 1915 t." [The Heroic Self-Defence of the Armenian People in 1915], and Armen Hatsagortzian, "Drvagner Vani herosamartis" [Episodes from the Heroic Battle of Van], both in "Sovetakan grakanoutyoun", XXXI (April, 1965), 82-93, 100-102.

81) Archives of the Republic of Armenia Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference [now integrated into the archives of Dashnaktsoutyoun, Boston, Massachusetts], File 1/1; Gr. Tchalkhouchian, "La livre rouge" (Paris, 1919), pp. 11-12; Edvard Choburian, "Metz paterazme yev hai zhoghovourde" [The Great War and the Armenian People] (Constantinople, 1920), p. 32.

82) G. Sasouni, "Tajkahayastane rousakan tirapetoutian tak (1914-1918) [Turkish Armenia under Russian Domination (1914-1918)] (Boston, 1927), pp. 67-72; Arshak Alboyajian, "Ankakh Hayastan" [Independent Armenia], Amenoun Taretsouytse [Everyone's Almanac], XV ([Constantinople], 1921), 107-108.

83) Aram was confirmed in office on May 20 and given instruction to appoint only Armenian officials and militia. His government, which lasted seventy days, was as follows:

Aram Manoukian - Governor
Sirakan Tigranian - Vice-Governor
Parouir Levonian - Assistant Governor
Artak Darbinian - Chancellor
Karapet Ajemian - Chancellor
Tigran Terlemezian - Treasurer
Onnik Mkhitarian - Secretary

The province was partitioned into fourteen regions, each with an Armenian administrator. Consult On. Mkhitarian, "Vani herosamarte" [The Heroic Battle of Van] (Sofia, 1930), pp. 213-218.

84) General G. Korganoff, "La participation des Arméniens à la guerre mondiale sur le front du Caucase, 1914-1918" (Paris, 1927), pp. 26-27; W. E. D. Allen and Paul Muratoff, "Caucasian Battlefields: A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828-1921" (Cambridge, 1953), p. 301; Gr. Tchalkhouchian, "La livre rouge" (Paris, 1919), pp. 11-12; Edvard Choburian, "Metz paterazme yev hai zhoghovourde" [The Great War and the Armenian People] (Constantinople, 1920), pp. 32-33; Archives of the Republic of Armenia Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference [now integrated into the archives of Dashnaktsoutyoun, Boston, Massachusetts], File 1/1.

85) E. V. Maslovskii, "Mirovaia voina na Kavkazskom fronte, 1914-1917 g." (Paris, [1933]), pp. 173-177; Felix Guse, "Die Kaukasusfront im Weltkrieg bis zum Frieden von Brest" (Leipzig, [1940]), p. 69; Joseph Pomiankowski, "Der Zusammenbruch des Ottomanischen Reiches: Erinnerungen an die Türkei aus der Zeit des Weltkrieges" (Leipzig, 1928), p. 147; G. Sasouni, "Tajkahayastane rousakan tirapetoutian tak (1914-1918) [Turkish Armenia under Russian Domination (1914-1918)] (Boston, 1927), pp. 75-81; W. E. D. Allen and Paul Muratoff, "Caucasian Battlefields: A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828-1921" (Cambridge, 1953), pp. 303-309.

86) Johannes Lepsius, "Der Todesgang des Armenischen Volkes" (Potsdam, 1930), pp. 101-102; Felix Guse, "Die Kaukasusfront im Weltkrieg bis zum Frieden von Brest" (Leipzig, [1940]), p. 69; On. Mkhitarian, "Vani herosamarte" [The Heroic Battle of Van] (Sofia, 1930), p. 220.

87) Dj. S. Kirakosian, "Aradjin hamashkharayin paterazme yev Arevmtahayoutyoune, 1914-1916" [The First World War and the Western Armenians, 1914-1916] (Yerevan, 1965), p. 273, and other Armenian sources estimate that approximately 40,000 civilians perished during the retreat. Consult also On. Mkhitarian, "Vani herosamarte" [The Heroic Battle of Van] (Sofia, 1930), p. 279.

88) Georgian SSR Central State Historical Archives, Fund 2c, folder 3198, p. 101, in E. K. Sargsian, "Ekspansionistskaia politika Osmanskoi imperii v Zakavkaz'e nakanune I v gody pervoi mirovoi voiny" (Yerevan, 1962), p. 280; Great Britain, Parliament, "The Treatment of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, Miscellaneous No. 31 (1916)" (London, 1916), pp. 83-95; Johannes Lepsius, "Der Todesgang des Armenischen Volkes" (Potsdam, 1930), pp. 116-123; Sisak Nalbandian, "Tarono inknapashtpanoutyoune yev djarde, 1914-1915" [The Self-Defence and Massacre of Taron, 1914-1915] (Fresno, Calif. 1920). For an excellent account of the final days of the Armenians of Moush and Sasoun, consult Vahan Papazian, "Im houshere" [My Memoirs], II (Beirut, 1952), 384-417.

89) W. E. D. Allen and Paul Muratoff, "Caucasian Battlefields: A History of the Wars on the Turco-Caucasian Border, 1828-1921" (Cambridge, 1953), pp. 367-368; General G. Korganoff, "La participation des Arméniens à la guerre mondiale sur le front du Caucase, 1914-1918" (Paris, 1927), pp. 33-43; M. Larcher, "La guerre torque dans la guerre mondiale" (Paris, 1926), p. 404. After the reoccupation of Moush and Bitlis, Armenian societies of Transcaucasia offered rewards for the deliverance of women and children forcibly Islamised and taken into Turkish and Kurdish homes. The "one piece of gold for an Armenian" fund retrieved between 5,000 and 6,000 persons. Consult Sebouh [Arshak Nersesian], "Edjer im housheren" [Pages from My Memoirs], I (Boston, 1925), pp. 270-274.