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Index

Armenia

- Armenia
- The Historical Significance of Armenia's Geographical Situation
- The Geopolitical Situation of Armenia

The Urartu Civilisation

- The Urartu Civilisation
- The Arrival of the Indo-European Armenians
- The Armenian Language

Victory for Independence

- Victory for Independence
- Armenia and the Empire of the Medes
- Armenia and the Persian Empire
- Armenia within the Persian Empire
- Alexander the Great
- The First Independence, 322-215 B.C.
- The Kingdom of the Seleucids
- Armenia regains its Independence

Artashisian Dynasty on the Armenian Throne

- Artashisian Dynasty on the Armenian Throne
- Armenia Minor
- The first History Lessons
- Tigran the Great
- The Conquests of Tigran
- King of Kings
- The New Capital
- Tigran's Way of Thinking and His Court
- The Social Structure of Armenia
- The Military Power of Armenia
- The Roman Empire and its Expansion in the East
- The First War between Lucullus and Armenia, 69 B.C.
- The Battle of Tigranakert (October 6, 69 B.C.)
- The Second War of Lucullus Against Armenia (68 B.C.)
- The Campaign of Pompey (67-66 B.C.)
- Tigran and His Fate

Armenia caught between Rome and the Arsacids

- Armenia caught between Rome and the Arsacids
- Artavazd III (56-34)
- Crassus' Campaign Against Persia
- Caesar's Plan
- The Campaign of Marcus Antonius
- Artashes II
- Augustus and his Policy Towards Armenia
- The Last King in the Artashisian Dynasty (20 B.C. to 2 A.D.)
- The Period between the Dynasties of Artashisian and Arshakounian (2 to 53 A.D.)
- The Reign of Tirdat I (53-100)
- Armenia During the Reign of the Successors to Tirdat I (100-224)
- The General Situation in Armenia during the Roman Rule
- The Leadership of Armenia and its Organisation
- Military Aspects
- The Economical and Social Aspects
- The Ancient Religion in Armenia
- Armenia, its Position and Political Posture
- Rome and Armenia

The Acceptance of Christianity

- The Acceptance of Christianity
- The Sasanid Seizure of Power in Persia (224-228)
- Armenia and Rome Against the Sasanids (228-252)
- Tirdat III (252-330)
- Armenia's Acceptance of Christianity and Grigor Lousavoritch (288-301)
- Armenia During the Last Arsacid Kings (330-428)
- The Armenian Feudal Lords and their Role
- Cultural Work

Defending Christianity

- Defending Christianity
- Armenia Under Sasanid Rule and the Battle of Avarayr (430-634)
- The Separation of the Armenian Church and Its Consequences
- Islam and the Arab Empire
- The Armies of the Arabs March Towards Armenia (639-659)
- Armenia Under the Rule of the Arab (645-859)
- Armenia Between the Arab and Byzantine Empires
- Military Aspects
- Economical Aspects
- Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects
- Armenia's Role in the Creation of the Christian Architecture

Armenia Under the Bagratouni Dynasty

- Armenia Under the Bagratouni Dynasty
- The Emergence of the Bagratouni
- Armenia Gains Once More Its Independence
- The Royal Soldiers: Ashot I, Smbat I and Ashot II
- The Height of the Bagratouni Era, Abas I, Ashot III, Smbat II, Gagik I
- The City of Ani
- Smbat III and the Creation of the Lori Kingdom
- The Turanians
- War in Two Fronts
- The End of Ani and Its Consequences
- Military Aspects
- Economic and Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects
- The Meaning of the Bagratouni Armenia and Its Fate
- Armenia and Byzantine Empire
- Byzantine, Its Role and Significance
- The Armenian Soldiers of Byzantine
- The Armenian Commanders and Officials of Byzantine
- The Armenian Emperors of Byzantine
- The Armenian Civilization and Byzantine
- The Policy of Byzantine towards Armenia

Cilicia - the New Armenia

- Cilicia - the New Armenia
- Entrance of Price Rouben in Cilicia
- The Middle East at the End of the 11th century
- New Armenia, the Ally of the Crusader States (1095-1100)
- The successful battles of New Armenia against Byzantine and the Muslims (1100-1187)
- The Crusader States and the Counterattack of Islam
- Levon II the Magnificent (1187-1219)
- The End of the Crusader States
- The Hetoum Dynasty and the Alliance With the Mongols (1220-1300)
- The Last Regents of the Hetoum Dynasty (1300-1342)
- The Lusignan Dynasty and the End of New Armenia (1342-1375)
- The Organization of New Armenia
- Military Aspects
- Economic Aspects
- Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects
- The Historical Extent of New Armenia

Armenia Under Turanian Rule

- Armenia Under Turanian Rule
- The Invasion of the Seljuk Turks
- The Invasion of the Mongols
- The First Large Emigration of the Armenians
- The Ottoman Turks and the Establishment of the Ottoman Empire
- The Armenians and the Ottoman Turks
- The Conquest of Armenia by the Ottoman Turks
- Armenia Under the Rule of the Ottoman Turks
- Armenia and Persia
- The Armenian Principalities of Karabakhn
- Military Aspects
- Economical and Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects

The Renaissance or the Resurrection of Armenia

- The Renaissance or the Resurrection of Armenia
- The Development of Thoughts and Actions
- The Armenian Church and its role
- The Mkhitarists
- The Re-discovery of Armenia by the Western World
- Armenia and the Printing
- Cultural Works
- The Literary Movement
- The Emergence of the Publication of Armenian Scripts
- The National Sentiment of the Armenian People
- Khrimian Hayrik
- The Influence of Armenia in the Orient

The Eastern Question

- The Eastern Question
- The Turanian Deluge
- The Eastern Question until 1877
- The State of the Ottoman Empire
- Attempts at reform in the Ottoman Empire
- The Liberation of the Peoples in the Balkans

Russia in the Caucasus

- Russia in the Caucasus
- The End of Armenian Seclusion
- The Wars Between Russia and Persia
- The Russian-Turkish Wars During the 19th century
- Transcaucasia Under Russian Rule
- The Policy of Tsarist Russia in Transcaucasia
- Military Aspects

The Armenian Question

- The Armenian Question
- The Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin (1878)
- The Policy of the Major Powers from 1878 to 1894
- Armenian Question from 1878 to 1894
- The Ottoman Policy
- The Situation in Western Armenia
- The Mass Murders of 1894-1896
- The Occupation of Bank Ottoman
- The Position of the Major Powers During the Massacres of 1894-1896
- The Role of Profits

Battle on Two Fronts

- Battle on Two Fronts
- The Birth of the Armenian Revolutionary Movement
- Battle on Two Fronts
- The Cooperation of Armenia in the Liberation of the People in the Orient

Tsarist Russia Against the Armenians

- Tsarist Russia Against the Armenians
- Russian Policy Towards non-Russians
- The Confiscation of the Properties of the Armenian Church
- The Massacres of 1905
- Calming Measures and Vorontsov-Dashkov

The Revolution of the Young Turks and the Armenian People on the Eve of World War I

- The Revolution of the Young Turks and the Armenian People on the Eve of World War I
- The Revolution of the Young Turks
- The Policy of Turkification
- The Reform Plan of 1913-1914
- Armenia on the Eve of the First World War
- Economic Aspects

The First World War

- The First World War
- Pan Turkism and Pan Turanism
- Armenian Genocide of 1915-1918
- The Participation of the Armenians in the First World War

The Resurrection of Armenia

- The Resurrection of Armenia
- The Defence of Transcaucasia (1917-1918)
- The Resurrection of Armenia
- Armenia and the Allies
- The 1920 War between Turkey and Armenia
- A Draft Soviet-Turkish Treaty
- The Armenian-Turkish War

Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918

- Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918

Eastern Armenia

- Eastern Armenia
- Russian Conquest of the Caucasus
- The Armenian Oblast
- Provincial Reorganizations in the Caucasus
- Russian Annexation of Kars, Ardahan, and Batum
- Armenians, Georgians, and Moslems of Transcaucasia
- The Armenian Literary Movement and Subsequent Emergence of Political Societies
- The Armenian Church Crisis, 1903-1905
- The Armeno-Tatar Conflict and the Revised Platform of Dashnaktsoutiun
- The Years of Reaction, 1907-1912

Western Armenia

- Western Armenia
- The Armenians of the Ottoman Empire
- Internationalisation of the "Armenian Question"
- Massacres, Reform Plans, Massacres. 1894-1896
- The "Young Turks" and the Coup f 1908
- The Counterrevolution and the Ascendancy of the Ittihadist Triumvirate, 1909-1913
- Russia and Armenian Reforms, 1912-1914
- The Negotiations
- Statistical Controversies
- The Compromise Reform of February 8, 1914

"The Fateful Years" (1914-1917)

- "The Fateful Years" (1914-1917)
- The Turkish Decision for War
- The Erzurum Congress
- Eastern Armenian Preparations
- Nicholas II in the Caucasus
- Enver's Disastrous Winter Campaign of 1914
- Effects of the Campaign in Transcaucasia
- Deportation and Massacre of the Western Armenians
- Deliverance and Evacuation of Van
- Revelation of Actual Tsarist Attitudes
- The Secret Entente Agreement
- The New Viceroy, Grand Duke Nicholas Romanov, in the Caucasus
- Occupation and Administration of the Armenian Plateau, 1916
- Renewed Eastern Armenian Activities

"Hopes and Emotions" (March-October, 1917)

- "Hopes and Emotions" (March-October, 1917)
- "The March Revolution"
- Formation of Soviets in Transcaucasia
- The Position of Georgian, Armenian, and Moslem Parties
- The "April Theses" and the Armenian Bolsheviks
- The Ozakom
- The First Congress of Western Armenians
- The "Provisional Government's Arrangement about Western Armenia"
- The Caucasus Front and American Consul F. Willoughby Smith
- Russia in Crisis, July-November, 1917
- The First Regional Conference of Caucasian Bolshevik Organisations
- The Eastern Armenian National Congress
- Proposals for the Provincial Reorganisation of Transcaucasia

The Bolshevik Revolution and Armenia

- The Bolshevik Revolution and Armenia
- Revolution, the Sovnarkom, and Self-Determination
- Lenin's Declarations about Armenia
- The Decree "About Western Armenia"
- The Sovnarkom Seeks Peace
- The German Offensive and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Transcaucasia Adrift (November, 1917

- Transcaucasia Adrift (November, 1917
- The Transcaucasian Commissariat
- The Constituent Assembly
- The Erzinjan Truce
- The Second Regional Congress of the Caucasus Army
- The Question of Bolshevik-Dashnakist Collaboration
- Formation of National Corps in Transcaucasia
- Consul Smith versus the Department of State
- Transcaucasia's Inconclusive Response to Ottoman Proposals
- Turkish Violation of the Erzinjan Truce
- The Transcaucasian Seim
- The Seim's Conditions for Peace

Dilemmas (March-April, 1918)

- Dilemmas (March-April, 1918)
- Confusion in Trabizond and in Tiflis
- The Fall of Erzurum and All Western Armenia
- Smith's Appeals for Assistance
- The Trabizond Conference
- Transcaucasia's Quandary
- Transcaucasia Aflame
- The "March Days" in Baku
- Concessions and Ultimatums in Trabizond
- Menshevik Anxiety about Batum
- The Seim's Response to the Ottoman Challenge

War and Independence (April-May, 1918)

- War and Independence (April-May, 1918)
- War
- The Democratic Federative Republic of Transcaucasia
- The Surrender of Kars
- Turmoil in Tiflis
- The Sovnarkom's Ambivalence
- The Batum Peace Conference
- Turkish Invasion of the Yerevan Guberniia
- Conflicting German-Turkish Interests in Transcaucasia
- Attempted German Mediation and a New Ottoman Ultimatum
- Georgian Preparations to Abandon the Federation

The Republics of Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia

- The Republics of Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia
- Collapse of the Transcaucasian Federative Republic
- The Republics of Georgia and Azerbaijan
- The Armenian Quandary
- Decisive Battles near Yerevan
- Final Negotiations and the Treaties of Batum
- Assessment of the Losses
- Interpretations of Armenian Independence
- Germany's Conflict with Turkey
- The Deterioration of Armeno-Georgian Relations
- Organisation of Armenia's Cabinet and Its Transferral to Yerevan
- Armenia's Legislature - the Khorhourt
- Beacons of Hope

The Suppliants (June-October, 1918)

- The Suppliants (June-October, 1918)
- Armenian Diplomats in Germany
- The Battle for Baku
- The Brest-Litovsk Supplementary Treaty and Talaat's Mission
- The Fall of Baku
- The Sovnarkom-Ottoman Alternation and the Fall of the Ittihadist Government
- The Armenian Mission to Constantinople
- Misgivings Arising from the Mudros Armistice
- The British in Transcaucasia

In conclusion

- In conclusion

Soviet Armenia

- Soviet Armenia
- Sovietisation and Peace
- The Aftermath
- Soviet Armenia
- Making Armenia Armenian
- Stalin's Revolution
- World War II and the Cold War
- The Years of Reform:
- The Rise of the New Nationalism
- From Renewed Reform to National Revolution
- The Consequences of Soviet Armenia

The Second Independent Republic of Armenia

- The Second Independent Republic of Armenia
- The New Foreign Policy of Armenia
- The Setbacks for the Ter-Petrosian Administration
- Renewed Attention to the Armenian Genocide
- Kocharian's Administration
- The Cultural and Scientific Life of Armenia and Armenians During the 20th century

Epilogue

- Epilogue
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Until the first years of the twentieth century, the focus of Armenian revolutionary activities lay within the Ottoman Empire. 47 Dashnaktsoutiun made a conscious and concentrated effort to avoid active involvement in the Russian opposition movement. Despite the fact that tsarist bureaucrats harassed and imprisoned Armenian political leaders and ordered the border patrols to kill or arrest the armed bands that attempted to slip into Turkey, Dashnaktsoutiun, imposing strict party discipline, forbade retaliation. Engrossment in a struggle on two fronts would only dissipate the organisation's limited strength. The undesirable occurred, however, in 1903, when in addition to Abdul Hamid hand his Hamidiye cavalry units, the Russian bureaucracy became the object of Armenian terrorism. What had provoked Dashnaktsoutiun to alter its strategy?

The Armenian Church Crisis, 1903-1905

The reaction following the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881 was characterized by attempts to Russify the minority groups of the Empire. Russian colonists were sent to the border regions to weaken the cohesiveness of the respective nationalities. Limitations were imposed in the educational privileges of the non-Russians, whose schools, after being closed for a time, were obliged to adopt a Russian-style curriculum. In the Caucasus the Governor-General, having superseded the Viceroy and possessing greater military prerogatives, intensified measures for assimilation. At that post, Prince Grigori Golitsyn 48 counselled Tsar Nicolas II to confiscate the properties of the Church of Armenia and to take from its jurisdiction the established network of schools. The national wealth and influence concentrated in the Church would be shattered; schools, placed under state supervision would accelerate the process of Russification, thus depriving the revolutionaries of their primary source of strength. Golitsyn anticipated little resistance from the aged Catholicos. 49 The exhortations of the Governor-General convinced Nicholas of the wisdom of the project. In June, 1903, the Tsar decreed that all goods and properties not essential to the performance of religious services were to be expropriated and transferred to the ministries of Agriculture, State Properties, and Interior. In return the Ministry of Interior would provide sufficient funds for the operation of Armenian schools and churches. 50

The Armenian reaction was immediate and overwhelming. Golitsyn had miscalculated, for the decree inspired greater nationalism and incited thousands who previously had remained aloof from the revolutionary movement to turn toward Dashnaktsoutiun in the expectation that it would provide direction for the expression of public indignation. Socialist societies, including Marxist groups, deviated from their anticlerical tradition to rise in defence of the Armenian Church, so frequently criticized by them. Dashnaktsoutiun took control of the Central Committee for Self-Defence and, in conjunction with the Catholicos, organized mass protest demonstrations in nearly every Armenian community of the Russian Empire. In a bloody reign of violence which lasted two years, hundreds of Russian bureaucrats fell before the bullets, knives, and bombs of Armenian "terrorists". Golitsyn himself was critically wounded. 51 Nevertheless, during the first year of unrest, Minister of Interior V. K. Plehve, the influential collaborator of Golitsyn, prevailed upon the Tsar to remain resolute and uncompromising. As the fate of the national properties lay in balance, the General Congress of Dashnaktsoutiun in 1904 responded officially to the Russian challenge. Revising its program, the party declared that, although amelioration of the unbearable conditions in Western Armenia remained the basic concern, oppression within the Russian Empire could be ignored no longer. Dashnaktsoutiun pledged itself to defend the basic rights of all Armenians, whether in realm of sultan or tsar. 52

Other socialist-oriented circles also condemned the tsarist confiscations but utilised the opportunity to attack Dashnaktsoutiun as well. Marxist Social Democrats mocked the decision of the nationalist party. Tsarist suppression was not new; why had Dashnaktsoutiun only in 1904 raised its voice in opposition? The Marxists answered their own query by postulating that Dashnaktsoutiun, by combining the question of Western and Eastern Armenia and assuming socialist phrases, was attempting to deceive the masses in order to divert them from the mainstream of the Russian revolutionary movement. 53 However, the Armenian Marxists, few and divided, had little influence upon those masses. Not until 1903 had they been able to form a Social Democrat group in the Yerevan guberniia, although in 1899 Stepan Shahoumian, later a close associate of Lenin, had initiated a Marxist study group in neighbouring Lori. 54 Moreover, while some Marxists belonged to the multinational Caucasian Union of the Russian party, others founded their own Social Democratic Workers Armenian Organization. The latter, referred to as the "specifist", contended that the realities of the Armenian situation were quite different from those affecting the general proletariat, and that, therefore, the "specific" disparities warranted particular consideration. Consequently this group represented itself as the only true spokesman of the Armenian toilers and advocated the principles of federative government, national-cultural self-determination, and, within the Marxist movement, regional party autonomy. 55
47) Mikayel Vardanian, "H. H. Dashnaktsoutian patmoutyoun" [History of the A. (Armenian) R. (Revolutionary) Federation], I (Paris, 1932), 52-284. Written by one of the leading ideologues of Dashnaktsoutyoun, this work presents an important survey of the party's activities during the last decade of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the years of the twentieth. For biographical sketched of the leaders of Dashnaktsoutyoun and other revolutionary societies, consult "Houshapatoum H. H. Dashnaktsoutian, 1890-1950" [Historical Recollections of the A. (Armenian) R. (Revolutionary) Federation, 1890-1950], publication of the Bureau of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Boston, 1950), pp. 345-555; Gabriel Lazian, "Heghapokhakan demker (mtavorakanner yev haidoukner" [Revolutionary Figures (Intellectuals and Guerrilla Fighters)] (Cairo, 1945), and his "Demker hai azatagrakan sharzhoumen" [Figures of the Armenian Liberation Movement] (Cairo, 1949).

48) Golitsyn was appointed Governor-General in December, 1896.

49) The Catholicos was Mkrtich Khrimian, native of Van, delegate to the Congress of Berlin, former Patriarch of Constantinople.

50) D. Ananun, "Rousahayeri hasarakakan zargatsoume, III, 1901-1918" [The Social Development of the Russian Armenians: 1901-1918] (Venice, 1926), pp. 25-27; Gabriel Lazian, "Hayastan yev Hai Date: Hai yev rous haraberoutyounneru luisin tak [Armenia and the Armenian Question: under the Light of Armeno-Russian Relations] (Cairo, 1957), pp. 90-96, 121-123; Victor Bérard, "The Russian Empire and Czarism", trans. by G. Fox Davies and G. O. Pope (London, 1905), pp. 201-204.

51) D. Ananun, "Rousahayeri hasarakakan zargatsoume, III, 1901-1918" [The Social Development of the Russian Armenians: 1901-1918] (Venice, 1926), pp. 45-48, lists the leading tsarist officials who were assassinated between 1905-1907. Golitsyn was stabbed in October, 1903, by three Hntchakists. He was well enough to leave the Caucasus in mid-1904 and was officially relived of his duties several months later.

52) Mik. Hovhannisian [Vardanian], "Dashnaktsoutyoun yev nra hakarakordnere" [Dashnaktsoutyoun and Its Opponents] (Tbilisi, 1907), pp. 168-169; D. Ananun, "Rousahayeri hasarakakan zargatsoume, III, 1901-1918" [The Social Development of the Russian Armenians: 1901-1918] (Venice, 1926), pp. 128-129; H. H. Dashnaktsoutyoun, "Kaghvadzner Yerrod Endh. Zhoghovi atenagroutyounnere" [Excerpts from the Minutes of the Third Gen. (General) Congress] (Geneva, 1905). In 1904, the party accepted the tactic of "self-defence" but a year later adopted the "Caucasian Project," which committed it to joining the general revolutionary movement against the Russian autocracy. For the decision to move from the defensive to the offensive, consult H. H. Dashnaktsoutyoun, "Nakhagitz kovkasian gordzouneoutian" [Preliminary Project of Caucasian Activity] (2nd ed.; Geneva, 1906), p. 2; Mikayel Vardanian, "H. H. Dashnaktsoutian patmoutyoun" [History of the A. (Armenian) R. (Revolutionary) Federation], I (Paris, 1932), I, 353-356; V. Navasardian, "H. H. D. gaghaparabanoutyoune" [The Ideology of the A. R. F.], "Houshapatoum", pp. 181-182.

53) Ds. P. Aghayan, "Revoliutsion sharzhoumnere Hayastanoum 1905-1907 tt." [The Revolutionary Movements in Armenia 1905-1907] (Yerevan, 1955), pp. 74-77; St. Shahoumian, "Yerker [Works], I (Yerevan, 1955), 48-52, 290; G. Abov, "Dashnaktsoutyounn antsialoum yev aizhm" [Dashnaktsoutyoun in the Past and Present] (2nd printing; Yerevan, 1930), pp. 20-33, 46-48; G. M. Mneyan, "Stepan Shahoumiani partiakan yev petakan gortzenoutyoune (1900-1918)" [Stepan Shahoumian's Party and Governmental Activity (1900-1918)] (Yerevan, 1958), p. 56.

54) G. Haroutounian, "Revoliutsion sharzhoumnere Hayastanoum 1905-1907 tt." [The Revolutionary Movements in Armenia, 1905-1907] (Yerevan, 1956), pp. 29, 31; G. M. Mneyan, "Stepan Shahoumiani partiakan yev petakan gortzouneoutyoune (1900-1918)" [Stepan Shahoumian's Party and Governmental Activity (1900-1918)] (Yerevan, 1963), p. 26; Georgy Sokolvsky, "Yerevani kaghaki sotsial-demokratakan kazmakerpoutian patmoutian hamarot aknark 1904-10 tt." [A Cursory View of the History of the Social-Democratic Organisation of the City of Yerevan, 1904-1910], "Hin bolshevikneri hishoghoutyounner" [Memoirs of Veteran Bolsheviks] (Yerevan, 1958), pp. 110-113.

55) D. Ananun, "Rousahayeri hasarakakan zargatsoume, III, 1901-1918" [The Social Development of the Russian Armenians: 1901-1918] (Venice, 1926), pp. 91-98; "Nakhagitz-Tzragir Kovkasian Sotsial-Demokrataiakan Banvorakan Kazmakerpoutyounneri" [Preliminary Project and Program of the Caucasian Social-Democratic Workers Organisations] (Geneva, 1903).