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Index

Armenia

- Armenia
- The Historical Significance of Armenia's Geographical Situation
- The Geopolitical Situation of Armenia

The Urartu Civilisation

- The Urartu Civilisation
- The Arrival of the Indo-European Armenians
- The Armenian Language

Victory for Independence

- Victory for Independence
- Armenia and the Empire of the Medes
- Armenia and the Persian Empire
- Armenia within the Persian Empire
- Alexander the Great
- The First Independence, 322-215 B.C.
- The Kingdom of the Seleucids
- Armenia regains its Independence

Artashisian Dynasty on the Armenian Throne

- Artashisian Dynasty on the Armenian Throne
- Armenia Minor
- The first History Lessons
- Tigran the Great
- The Conquests of Tigran
- King of Kings
- The New Capital
- Tigran's Way of Thinking and His Court
- The Social Structure of Armenia
- The Military Power of Armenia
- The Roman Empire and its Expansion in the East
- The First War between Lucullus and Armenia, 69 B.C.
- The Battle of Tigranakert (October 6, 69 B.C.)
- The Second War of Lucullus Against Armenia (68 B.C.)
- The Campaign of Pompey (67-66 B.C.)
- Tigran and His Fate

Armenia caught between Rome and the Arsacids

- Armenia caught between Rome and the Arsacids
- Artavazd III (56-34)
- Crassus' Campaign Against Persia
- Caesar's Plan
- The Campaign of Marcus Antonius
- Artashes II
- Augustus and his Policy Towards Armenia
- The Last King in the Artashisian Dynasty (20 B.C. to 2 A.D.)
- The Period between the Dynasties of Artashisian and Arshakounian (2 to 53 A.D.)
- The Reign of Tirdat I (53-100)
- Armenia During the Reign of the Successors to Tirdat I (100-224)
- The General Situation in Armenia during the Roman Rule
- The Leadership of Armenia and its Organisation
- Military Aspects
- The Economical and Social Aspects
- The Ancient Religion in Armenia
- Armenia, its Position and Political Posture
- Rome and Armenia

The Acceptance of Christianity

- The Acceptance of Christianity
- The Sasanid Seizure of Power in Persia (224-228)
- Armenia and Rome Against the Sasanids (228-252)
- Tirdat III (252-330)
- Armenia's Acceptance of Christianity and Grigor Lousavoritch (288-301)
- Armenia During the Last Arsacid Kings (330-428)
- The Armenian Feudal Lords and their Role
- Cultural Work

Defending Christianity

- Defending Christianity
- Armenia Under Sasanid Rule and the Battle of Avarayr (430-634)
- The Separation of the Armenian Church and Its Consequences
- Islam and the Arab Empire
- The Armies of the Arabs March Towards Armenia (639-659)
- Armenia Under the Rule of the Arab (645-859)
- Armenia Between the Arab and Byzantine Empires
- Military Aspects
- Economical Aspects
- Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects
- Armenia's Role in the Creation of the Christian Architecture

Armenia Under the Bagratouni Dynasty

- Armenia Under the Bagratouni Dynasty
- The Emergence of the Bagratouni
- Armenia Gains Once More Its Independence
- The Royal Soldiers: Ashot I, Smbat I and Ashot II
- The Height of the Bagratouni Era, Abas I, Ashot III, Smbat II, Gagik I
- The City of Ani
- Smbat III and the Creation of the Lori Kingdom
- The Turanians
- War in Two Fronts
- The End of Ani and Its Consequences
- Military Aspects
- Economic and Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects
- The Meaning of the Bagratouni Armenia and Its Fate
- Armenia and Byzantine Empire
- Byzantine, Its Role and Significance
- The Armenian Soldiers of Byzantine
- The Armenian Commanders and Officials of Byzantine
- The Armenian Emperors of Byzantine
- The Armenian Civilization and Byzantine
- The Policy of Byzantine towards Armenia

Cilicia - the New Armenia

- Cilicia - the New Armenia
- Entrance of Price Rouben in Cilicia
- The Middle East at the End of the 11th century
- New Armenia, the Ally of the Crusader States (1095-1100)
- The successful battles of New Armenia against Byzantine and the Muslims (1100-1187)
- The Crusader States and the Counterattack of Islam
- Levon II the Magnificent (1187-1219)
- The End of the Crusader States
- The Hetoum Dynasty and the Alliance With the Mongols (1220-1300)
- The Last Regents of the Hetoum Dynasty (1300-1342)
- The Lusignan Dynasty and the End of New Armenia (1342-1375)
- The Organization of New Armenia
- Military Aspects
- Economic Aspects
- Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects
- The Historical Extent of New Armenia

Armenia Under Turanian Rule

- Armenia Under Turanian Rule
- The Invasion of the Seljuk Turks
- The Invasion of the Mongols
- The First Large Emigration of the Armenians
- The Ottoman Turks and the Establishment of the Ottoman Empire
- The Armenians and the Ottoman Turks
- The Conquest of Armenia by the Ottoman Turks
- Armenia Under the Rule of the Ottoman Turks
- Armenia and Persia
- The Armenian Principalities of Karabakhn
- Military Aspects
- Economical and Social Aspects
- Cultural Aspects

The Renaissance or the Resurrection of Armenia

- The Renaissance or the Resurrection of Armenia
- The Development of Thoughts and Actions
- The Armenian Church and its role
- The Mkhitarists
- The Re-discovery of Armenia by the Western World
- Armenia and the Printing
- Cultural Works
- The Literary Movement
- The Emergence of the Publication of Armenian Scripts
- The National Sentiment of the Armenian People
- Khrimian Hayrik
- The Influence of Armenia in the Orient

The Eastern Question

- The Eastern Question
- The Turanian Deluge
- The Eastern Question until 1877
- The State of the Ottoman Empire
- Attempts at reform in the Ottoman Empire
- The Liberation of the Peoples in the Balkans

Russia in the Caucasus

- Russia in the Caucasus
- The End of Armenian Seclusion
- The Wars Between Russia and Persia
- The Russian-Turkish Wars During the 19th century
- Transcaucasia Under Russian Rule
- The Policy of Tsarist Russia in Transcaucasia
- Military Aspects

The Armenian Question

- The Armenian Question
- The Treaties of San Stefano and Berlin (1878)
- The Policy of the Major Powers from 1878 to 1894
- Armenian Question from 1878 to 1894
- The Ottoman Policy
- The Situation in Western Armenia
- The Mass Murders of 1894-1896
- The Occupation of Bank Ottoman
- The Position of the Major Powers During the Massacres of 1894-1896
- The Role of Profits

Battle on Two Fronts

- Battle on Two Fronts
- The Birth of the Armenian Revolutionary Movement
- Battle on Two Fronts
- The Cooperation of Armenia in the Liberation of the People in the Orient

Tsarist Russia Against the Armenians

- Tsarist Russia Against the Armenians
- Russian Policy Towards non-Russians
- The Confiscation of the Properties of the Armenian Church
- The Massacres of 1905
- Calming Measures and Vorontsov-Dashkov

The Revolution of the Young Turks and the Armenian People on the Eve of World War I

- The Revolution of the Young Turks and the Armenian People on the Eve of World War I
- The Revolution of the Young Turks
- The Policy of Turkification
- The Reform Plan of 1913-1914
- Armenia on the Eve of the First World War
- Economic Aspects

The First World War

- The First World War
- Pan Turkism and Pan Turanism
- Armenian Genocide of 1915-1918
- The Participation of the Armenians in the First World War

The Resurrection of Armenia

- The Resurrection of Armenia
- The Defence of Transcaucasia (1917-1918)
- The Resurrection of Armenia
- Armenia and the Allies
- The 1920 War between Turkey and Armenia
- A Draft Soviet-Turkish Treaty
- The Armenian-Turkish War

Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918

- Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918

Eastern Armenia

- Eastern Armenia
- Russian Conquest of the Caucasus
- The Armenian Oblast
- Provincial Reorganizations in the Caucasus
- Russian Annexation of Kars, Ardahan, and Batum
- Armenians, Georgians, and Moslems of Transcaucasia
- The Armenian Literary Movement and Subsequent Emergence of Political Societies
- The Armenian Church Crisis, 1903-1905
- The Armeno-Tatar Conflict and the Revised Platform of Dashnaktsoutiun
- The Years of Reaction, 1907-1912

Western Armenia

- Western Armenia
- The Armenians of the Ottoman Empire
- Internationalisation of the "Armenian Question"
- Massacres, Reform Plans, Massacres. 1894-1896
- The "Young Turks" and the Coup f 1908
- The Counterrevolution and the Ascendancy of the Ittihadist Triumvirate, 1909-1913
- Russia and Armenian Reforms, 1912-1914
- The Negotiations
- Statistical Controversies
- The Compromise Reform of February 8, 1914

"The Fateful Years" (1914-1917)

- "The Fateful Years" (1914-1917)
- The Turkish Decision for War
- The Erzurum Congress
- Eastern Armenian Preparations
- Nicholas II in the Caucasus
- Enver's Disastrous Winter Campaign of 1914
- Effects of the Campaign in Transcaucasia
- Deportation and Massacre of the Western Armenians
- Deliverance and Evacuation of Van
- Revelation of Actual Tsarist Attitudes
- The Secret Entente Agreement
- The New Viceroy, Grand Duke Nicholas Romanov, in the Caucasus
- Occupation and Administration of the Armenian Plateau, 1916
- Renewed Eastern Armenian Activities

"Hopes and Emotions" (March-October, 1917)

- "Hopes and Emotions" (March-October, 1917)
- "The March Revolution"
- Formation of Soviets in Transcaucasia
- The Position of Georgian, Armenian, and Moslem Parties
- The "April Theses" and the Armenian Bolsheviks
- The Ozakom
- The First Congress of Western Armenians
- The "Provisional Government's Arrangement about Western Armenia"
- The Caucasus Front and American Consul F. Willoughby Smith
- Russia in Crisis, July-November, 1917
- The First Regional Conference of Caucasian Bolshevik Organisations
- The Eastern Armenian National Congress
- Proposals for the Provincial Reorganisation of Transcaucasia

The Bolshevik Revolution and Armenia

- The Bolshevik Revolution and Armenia
- Revolution, the Sovnarkom, and Self-Determination
- Lenin's Declarations about Armenia
- The Decree "About Western Armenia"
- The Sovnarkom Seeks Peace
- The German Offensive and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Transcaucasia Adrift (November, 1917

- Transcaucasia Adrift (November, 1917
- The Transcaucasian Commissariat
- The Constituent Assembly
- The Erzinjan Truce
- The Second Regional Congress of the Caucasus Army
- The Question of Bolshevik-Dashnakist Collaboration
- Formation of National Corps in Transcaucasia
- Consul Smith versus the Department of State
- Transcaucasia's Inconclusive Response to Ottoman Proposals
- Turkish Violation of the Erzinjan Truce
- The Transcaucasian Seim
- The Seim's Conditions for Peace

Dilemmas (March-April, 1918)

- Dilemmas (March-April, 1918)
- Confusion in Trabizond and in Tiflis
- The Fall of Erzurum and All Western Armenia
- Smith's Appeals for Assistance
- The Trabizond Conference
- Transcaucasia's Quandary
- Transcaucasia Aflame
- The "March Days" in Baku
- Concessions and Ultimatums in Trabizond
- Menshevik Anxiety about Batum
- The Seim's Response to the Ottoman Challenge

War and Independence (April-May, 1918)

- War and Independence (April-May, 1918)
- War
- The Democratic Federative Republic of Transcaucasia
- The Surrender of Kars
- Turmoil in Tiflis
- The Sovnarkom's Ambivalence
- The Batum Peace Conference
- Turkish Invasion of the Yerevan Guberniia
- Conflicting German-Turkish Interests in Transcaucasia
- Attempted German Mediation and a New Ottoman Ultimatum
- Georgian Preparations to Abandon the Federation

The Republics of Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia

- The Republics of Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia
- Collapse of the Transcaucasian Federative Republic
- The Republics of Georgia and Azerbaijan
- The Armenian Quandary
- Decisive Battles near Yerevan
- Final Negotiations and the Treaties of Batum
- Assessment of the Losses
- Interpretations of Armenian Independence
- Germany's Conflict with Turkey
- The Deterioration of Armeno-Georgian Relations
- Organisation of Armenia's Cabinet and Its Transferral to Yerevan
- Armenia's Legislature - the Khorhourt
- Beacons of Hope

The Suppliants (June-October, 1918)

- The Suppliants (June-October, 1918)
- Armenian Diplomats in Germany
- The Battle for Baku
- The Brest-Litovsk Supplementary Treaty and Talaat's Mission
- The Fall of Baku
- The Sovnarkom-Ottoman Alternation and the Fall of the Ittihadist Government
- The Armenian Mission to Constantinople
- Misgivings Arising from the Mudros Armistice
- The British in Transcaucasia

In conclusion

- In conclusion

Soviet Armenia

- Soviet Armenia
- Sovietisation and Peace
- The Aftermath
- Soviet Armenia
- Making Armenia Armenian
- Stalin's Revolution
- World War II and the Cold War
- The Years of Reform:
- The Rise of the New Nationalism
- From Renewed Reform to National Revolution
- The Consequences of Soviet Armenia

The Second Independent Republic of Armenia

- The Second Independent Republic of Armenia
- The New Foreign Policy of Armenia
- The Setbacks for the Ter-Petrosian Administration
- Renewed Attention to the Armenian Genocide
- Kocharian's Administration
- The Cultural and Scientific Life of Armenia and Armenians During the 20th century

Epilogue

- Epilogue
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The more orthodox Marxists, guided by Shahoumian, exposed and denounced the nationalistic tendencies of the specifists and accused them of being contaminated by the "infectious ideology" of Dashnaktsoutiun. In their aversion to nationalism, orthodox Armenian Marxists often aspired to be more Russian than the Russians themselves. Shahoumian favoured compulsory use of the Russian language, condemned the hypothesis that each people has a "mystique", and argued that nations are formed as the result of economic concentrations during the capitalistic stage of social development. In more precise terms, Shahoumian and his associates vociferously attacked embroilment in the Western Armenian question, for, they held, the struggle should not inflame race against race, but instead class against class. 56 Though critical and active, the Armenian Marxists were unable to destroy the national-political monopoly of Dashnaktsoutiun. Only in 1920, when the Republic of Armenia was supplanted by the Soviet Socialist Republic, would they be rewarded for their long, sometimes seemingly hopeless struggle against their implacable foes.

During 1904, those foes, while directing the resistance in Transcaucasia, sought to solidify their bonds with other discontented elements of Russia. These, along with Dashnaktsoutiun, applauded when a Russian Social Revolutionary bomb pulverized Plehve, a cardinal enemy of the minority groups. Collaboration among the various revolutionary and opposition societies was attained in December when seventeen delegates representing Russian, Finnish, Latvian, Armenian Georgian, and Polish organisations convened in Paris. Of divergent political and economic persuasions, all were united in their condemnation of tsarist nationality and minority policies and in their conviction that the autocracy would be superseded by a democratic, constitutional regime for all Russia. 57

Probably few participates in the Paris convocation would have believed then that even before they return to Russia the St. Petersburg militia would fire on a group of workers petitioning Tsar Nicholas II and that this event on "Bloody Sunday" would mark the beginning of the 1905 Revolution. 58 The Russian failures in the war with Japan and mushrooming domestic unrest created a critical situation. The Caucasus united with all Russia to express its discontent through strikes and violence. 59 Armenians used the occasion to enunciate their refusal to consent to the sequestering of their national properties. If Nicholas was to survive the tempest, he had to yield and compromise. In Transcaucasia this entailed the recall of Prince Golitsyn and the restoration of the Viceroyalty for the Caucasus. To quell the wave of revolution and to regain the loyalty of the multinational region, Nicholas appointed Count I. I. Vorontsov-Dashkov to the post.

The Viceroy, who retained the title for ten years, has become the subject of heated controversy. Many adherents of Dashnaktsoutiun and nearly all Soviet students of the period accuse Vorontsov-Dashkov of hypocrisy, deceit, and perfidy. Golitsyn's open expression pf contempt for the people of Transcaucasia was assertedly transformed into a shrewd, calculated policy of divide and rule. At times feigning tolerance and even benevolence, the Viceroy pursued the aims of his predecessor in a more deliberate manner. In fairness to Vorontsov-Dashkov, it is necessary to point out that, although he employed stringent measures against dangerous revolutionary groups and quite naturally considered the interests of the Romanov dynasty above all else, he adopted a tactful, astute, and in general, conciliatory operational code. 60 In relation to the Armenians he reasoned that the most effective weapon to discredit the revolutionaries was the restoration of traditional prerogatives to the national Church. Having regained privileges, goods, and properties, the clergy would then revert to its customary conservatism. And the populace, forsaking the radicals, would pledge fealty once again to the Romanov dynasty. If, however, the impasse were not rapidly surmounted, the agitated Eastern Armenians might begin to clamour for the same type of autonomy they proposed for Western Armenians, and, spurred on by revolutionary dispositions, they would then demand the unification of the eastern and western branches of their nation, so artificially divided. The consequences of such ferment were unpredictable, but one need not to be prophet to recognize the evil omens. Vorontsov-Dashkov wisely counselled his monarch to annul the controversial edict, which had aroused the Eastern Armenians even more than the bloody activities of Abdul Hamid. In August, 1905, Nicholas heeded the words of admonition, rescinded the offensive decree of 1903, and expressed affection for his Armenian subjects. 61 The manoeuvre yielded immediate results. Hundreds of thanksgiving messages were received by Vorontsov-Dashkov and Nicholas. Spontaneous demonstrations of rejoicing, gratitude, and fidelity surged through many Transcaucasian cities and villages. Significantly, even some members of Dashnaktsoutiun participated in these manifestations. 62 The crisis precipitated by the confiscation of Church properties was overcome. Vorontsov-Dashkov was satisfied, and so was Dashnaktsoutiun, whose prestige, instead of diminishing, soared.
56) G. Haroutounian, "Revoliutsion sharzhoumnere Hayastanoum 1905-1907 tt." [The Revolutionary Movements in Armenia, 1905-1907] (Yerevan, 1956), pp. 43-45; G. M. Mneyan, "Stepan Shahoumiani partiakan yev petakan gortzouneoutyoune (1900-1918)" [Stepan Shahoumian's Party and Governmental Activity (1900-1918)] (Yerevan, 1963), pp. 113-122; M. V. Arzoumanian, "Bolshevikneri gortzenoutyoune yev revolitsion sharzhoumnere Hayastanoum 1907-1917 tvakannerin" [Bolshevik activity and the Revolutionary Movements in Armenia, 1907-1917] (Yerevan, 1959), pp. 203-212; Artashes Voskerchian, "Hai marksistakan knnadatoutian himnadirnere, Stepan Shahoumian, Suren Spandarian" [Stepan Shahoumian and Suren Spandarian, Founders of Armenian Marxist Criticism] (Yerevan, 1962), pp. 55-56.

57) Mikael Varandian, "Le conflict arméno-géorgien et la guerre du Caucase" (Paris, 1919), I, 352-353; Gabriel Lazian, "Hayastan yev Hai Date: Hai yev rous haraberoutyounneru luisin tak [Armenia and the Armenian Question: under the Light of Armeno-Russian Relations] (Cairo, 1957), pp. 131-133; George Fischer, "Russian Liberalism: From Gentry to Intelligentsia" (Cambridge, Mass. 1958), pp. 168-170; Paul Miliukov, "Russia and Its Crisis" (New York, 1962), pp. 381-384; Michael T. Florinsky, "Russia: A History and an Interpretation" (New York, 1953), I, 119-1170. The agreement of the opposition societies was published by Dashnaktsoutyoun in the brochure, "Heghapokhakan Dashn" [Revolutionary Alliance] (Geneva, 1905).

58) Soviet literature about the 1905 Revolution is voluminous. The most complete set of documents relating to the period was issued under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. The thirteen volumes edited by A. M. Pankratova and, later, A. L. Sidorov between 1955 and 1963 have various subtitles and inconsistent numbering but are listed under the general heading, "Revoliutsiia 1905-1907 g.g. v Rossii: Dokumenty i materialy".

59) Soviet Armenia studies of the 1905 Revolution are quite repetitive and tend to exaggerate the role played by Marxists societies, but because these publications include much archival material they are of significant value. In addition to cited works of Mneyan, Shahoumian, Aghayan, and Haroutounian, consult Kh. A. Barsegian, "Istoriia armianskoi bol'shevistskoi periodicheskoi pechati, 1900-1920" (Yerevan, 1958), pp. 73-122. Also consult the collection of articles published by the Armenian SSR Academy of Sciences, "Revoliutsion sharzhoumnere Hayastanoum rousakan aradjin revoliutsiayi tarinerin (hodvatzneri zhoghovatzou)" [The Revolutionary Movements in Armenia during the Years of the First Russian Revolution (Collection of Articles)] (Yerevan, 1955); and by the University of Yerevan, "Revoliutsion sharzhoumnere Hayastanoum, 1905-1907 (hodvatzneri zhoghovatzou)" [The Revolutionary Movements in Armenia, 195-1907 (Collection of Articles)] (Yerevan, 1955); As. Asatrian, "Hai grakanoutyoune yev rousakan aradjin reolitutsian" [Armenian Literature and the First Russian Revolution] (Yerevan, 1956).

60) Fortunately, some of the correspondence between Vorontsov-Dashkov and St. Petersburg has been published, providing an important insight into Russian imperial policy toward the peoples of the Caucasus. Included in Vorontsov-Dashkov's reports is much information concerning the confiscation of the Church properties, local nationality problems, Armeno-Tatar antagonism, and, from 1912-1914, the Viceroy's recommendations that Russia champion the "cause of the Western Armenians." Consult Vorontsov-Dashkov's "Vsepoddanneishaia zapiska po upravleniiu Kavkazskim kraem generala ad'iutanta grafa Vorontsova-Dashkova" (St. Petersburg, 1907), and his "Vsepod. Danneishii otchet za vosem' let upravleniia Kavkazom" (St. Petersburg, 1913). Also consult "Pis'ma I. I. Vorontsova-Dashkova Nikolaiu Romanovu (1905-1915)," foreword by V. Semennikov, "Krasnyi Arkhiv", XXVI (1928), 97-126.

61) Gabriel Lazian, "Hayastan yev Hai Date: Hai yev rous haraberoutyounneru luisin tak [Armenia and the Armenian Question: under the Light of Armeno-Russian Relations] (Cairo, 1957), pp. 129-131; D. Ananun, "Rousahayeri hasarakakan zargatsoume, III, 1901-1918" [The Social Development of the Russian Armenians: 1901-1918] (Venice, 1926), pp. 359-361. In his "Vsepoddan. Neishaia zapiska", pp. 8-10, Vorontsov-Dashkov pointed out the harmful effect of confiscation of the Armenian Church properties. He asserted that Dashnaktsoutyoun, which had been formed to free Western Armenians, had, as a result of the imprudence of tsarist officials, spread into every village and city of Transcaucasia and was supported in its territoristic activity against Romanov functionaries by all Armenian classes.

62) D. Ananun, "Rousahayeri hasarakakan zargatsoume, III, 1901-1918" [The Social Development of the Russian Armenians: 1901-1918] (Venice, 1926), pp. 365-367